The word “personality” originates from “persona”, mask (in the context of ancient theater to denote or identify a character). In a way, each of us takes on a character unknowingly on the stage called “life”, and these characters interact with each other.
The study of personality is of interest to many. Psychologist may find it intriguing, while organization leader may find it useful for the improvement of organizational effectiveness.
The studying of personality does not downplay individualism or individual uniqueness. People of similar personality are individuals and differ significantly from each other. Nonetheless, the characterization of personality traits allow the formulation of theories and practices that help people understand each other better.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of the most adopted personality categorization. While not without criticism and weaknesses, it is a fairly practical method to characterize personality traits. There are free MBTI “tests” (assessments) online. One is available at 16 personalities.
MBTI tests assesses a personality in 4 “axes”:
While MBTI is popular, it is based on the cognitive function theories of Karl Jung. Each function has two letters. The first letter can be one of the following:
Yes, indeed, these are the same letters as the middle two letters of MBTI, and they carry about the same meanings. However, a function also has a second letter:
This is also corresponding to the first letter of MBTI.
What is interesting about Karl Jung’s theory is that each person has four consciously accessible functions, stacked in the order of dominant (dom), auxiliary (aux), tertiary (ter) and inferior (inf). The “energy orientation” (“e” versus “i”) must alternate on a stack. Furthermore, the dominant and inferior functions must belong to the same type (perceiving or judging), the auxiliary and the tertiary functions also must belong to the same type.
Note that the ranking from dominant to inferior does not necessarily reflect the “strength” of each function, but rather the degree of awareness of a person of that function. Some also compare stack order as follows:
It is typical to write a function stack from dominant to inferior. For example, Fi-Se-Ni-Te means Fi is the dominant function, where Te is the inferior function.
This means that some function stacking is impossible in Jung’s theory. It also means that each MBTI category corresponds to a specific Jung function stack:
Beyond Jung and Myers-Briggs, there are extensions to this line of theories. Some people (Berens and Beebe) add a “shadow stack” that is below Jung’s function stack. This shadow stack represents functions that are subconscious. The stacking order of the shadow stack has the same perceiving/judging function order as Jung’s stack, but the energy direction of each function is opposite.
For example, in the case of INTP, Jung’s stack is Ti-Ne-Si-Fe, the shadow stack is, then, Te-Ni-Se-Fi. The shadow stack connects under Jung’s stack, so the full 8-function stack of an INTP is Ti-Ne-Si-Fe-Te-Ni-Se-Fi.
One theory is that the shadow stack surfaces when a person is under extreme stress. In our example, because the shadow stack of an INTP is Te-Ni-Se-Fi, an INTP under extreme stress is theorized to behave like an ENTJ.
A theory that contrasts the shadow stack theory is the brain lateralization theory proposed by Thomson. This theory inserts a lateral stack in the middle of Jung’s stack that is the reverse in energy direction and function of Jung’s stack.
For example, in the case of an INTP, Jung’s stack is Ti-Ne-Si-Fe. The lateral stack, being opposite in energy (e/i) direction and functions, is Fi-Se-Ni-Te. This stack is then inserted as the lateral stack in the middle of Jung’s stack, resulting in Ti-Ne-(Fi-Se-Ni-Te)-Si-Fe, where the lateral stack is in parentheses.
In Thomson’s theory, the first half of the complete 8-function stack is handled by the dominant/stronger brain hemisphere. In our example, Ti-Ne-Fi-Se are all functions typically active (by PET observation) of the right brain. The left brain, in this case the non-dominant one, handles Ni-Te-Si-Fe.
Not quoting any scientific sources or even publications, I can personally opine (without scientific or quantified evidence!) that Thomson’s theory jives with my personal experience much more so than the shadow stack theory.
Enneagram is a nine-type characterization of personalities. The characterizations are as follows:
Each type is characterized by ego fixation, holy idea (value), basic fear, basic desire (inspiration), temptation (tendency) and vice/passion (deadly sin).
What is interesting about Anneagram is that a person has a main type, and a secondary type. For example 5w6 is a type 5 with a 6 “wing”. This allows for further refinement within a type.
This personality assessment divides into five axes:
Gretchen Rubin originates the Four Tendencies framework. In this framework, the core components consist of inner and outer expectations. Outer expectations refer to expectations from people other than self, and inner expectations refer to expectations that are from within.
This framework has four categories of personalities:
The four categories are better explained in a separate article.
There is a rough “mapping” between the Four Tendencies and MBTI.
Rubin characterizes rebels are not meeting external or internal expectations. This roughly translates to “no expectations.” It is also added that rebels are motivated by sense of freedom and self-determination.
This maps to personalities with a dominant extraverted perceiving function: ESTP, ENTP, ESFP and ENFP.
Questioners are actually very related to rebels, with the exception that questioners can get along with rules if they can align the rules to inner expectations. This suggests that the inner expectations are of great importance.
In MBTI, this translates to a dominant introverted judging function. Personalities of this categories are ISTP, INTP, ISFP and INFP.
Obligers are motivated by accountability, but they also have difficulties meeting their inner expectations. This suggests a big difference between the outer expectations and inner expectations. In MBTI, this maps to personalities with a dominant extraverted judging function. Types that meet this requirement are ESTJ, ENTJ, ESFJ and ESTJ.
Upholders are similar to obligers, with the difference that upholders also meet their inner expectations. The relative small difference between the outer versus inner expectations suggest that these judging functions are auxiliary and tertiary.
MBTI types corresponding to upholders are ISTJ, INTJ, ISFJ and INFJ.
Yes and no. Maybe! MBTI, for example, has received a lot of criticism of not being scientific.
It is only recently that scientists have actually used instruments to measure brain activities and see if brain activity patterns clustering correspond to personality assessment categorization. The data points are sparse at this point, but there is evidence that different personalities have strong correlations to different brain activity patterns.
In the end, most personality assessments are based on how a person answers a set of questions. This automatically introduces much uncertainties and invalidates any scientific principles (because how each person answers a question is highly subjective).
To some people, yes. To some people, no.
It is important to differentiate “characterization” from “definition”. After assessment, some people let the assessment results define them. This, in return, allow assessment results influence behavioral changes of these people in the future. Others look at assessment results as characterization and a clue of how things work.
While personalities are not the only factor, it can be a major factor that influences the effectiveness of an organization. There are two aspects.
The first aspect is the “right mix” of personalities. In any organization, not everyone can be a leader, but there certainly needs to be someone coordinating the efforts of the organization. Likewise, not everyone in an organization should focus on details and forget about the big picture, but it is essential that someone is good at handling the details and get things done correctly. Having the right mix ensures all functions of an organization is covered.
The second aspect is the dynamics of people within an organization. Different personalities can clash unintentionally due to miscommunication and/or assumptions. Intra-organization conflicts and friction can certainly drain organizational effectiveness. The understanding of personalities can be used to educate members of an organization to avoid unnecessary conflicts and resolve the ones that do occur.
Different personalities can clash without understanding. Such clashes result from misunderstanding, over-interpretation and intolerance. We will take a look at a few key points here.
From time to time, each person makes an assumption that “I am normal, everyone should think and behave like me.” This is not referring to individualism, this is referring to assumptions made when interpreting the actions or non-actions of others.
For example, an extraverted and agreeable person may think, “I stay quiet only when I am upset and do not want to cause disharmony in the group.” When this extraverted and agreeable person sees another person being quiet in a social setting, the interpretation may be “that person must be upset about something.”
This interpretation is based on the assumption that the other person is just like the extraverted and agreeable person! What if the other person is an introverted and thinking person? Being quiet and not engaged can simply because the other person is thinking about something that is only of importance to him/her, such as “I wonder how many Joules of energy I can save if I lower the thermostat of this room by 1 degree Celsius.”
This applies to introverted people more, but every person probably has a situation like this once in a while.
The underlying assumption is “they should know how I feel/think about this situation.” The assumption is then used to logically deduce something along the line of “so why do they decide to XYZ anyway? Is someone trying to upset me? Am I not getting respected?”
This assumption can lead to a lot of initial misunderstanding, and such misunderstanding can snowball too full-scale conflicts. If such assumptions can lead to problems, what should a person do, instead?
The first step is to make it clear to others one’s thoughts and feelings. This may seem to come easy for extraverted people and a handicap for introverted people. However, extraverted people can over-project and introverted people can be thoughtful and choose the words more carefully.
Certain personality categories have significantly more members than others. As such, these categories are the majority. As a natural result, these categories also define the “norm” and other social guidelines, best practices and even rules.
This understanding has two major outcomes. First, people who are categorized with the majority can understand that people in the minority categories are not abnormal, they are simply less represented in the general population. This should be no different from the treatment of diversity in any other form.
The same understanding also empowers people in the minority categories to know that despite insensitive and uneducated scrutiny and pressure to conform, their differences are not strange, awkward or weird.
Two introverted people can get into conflicts mainly due to the lack of communication. An introverted person in MBTI has a introverted dominant function.
If that dominant function is also a judging function (IxxP personalities), then actions and decisions may seem to be done without consideration or consultation of others.
If that dominant function is a perceiving function (IxxJ), then it may seem to others that conclusions are made with limited or incomplete data.
The opposite energy orientation can result in an exhausting interaction. Introverted personalities recharge when the surrounding is quiet and there is time and space to self. Extraverted personalities recharge when they can bounce ideas off of others, and talk things out loud.
This is a difference of how information is taken in. xSxx personalities tend to focus on tangible, factual details, as opposed to xNxx personalities look at patterns and differences.
In a conversation, a xSxx person can spill out details faster than a xNxx person can process/absorb. Conversely, a xNxx person can present ideas and concepts without sufficient connections and support so they seem random and disjoint.
This is an opposing judging function conflict, which centers around “why do you decide to…”
To a xxFx person, the decisions and actions of an xxTx can seem cold, inconsiderate and without emotions. At the same time the decisions of an xxFx can seem illogical to an xxTx.
This has to do with a preference of structure in the world. A xxxJ person can appear closed minded, demanding to a xxxP, while a xxxP person can seem aimless, “lazy” and indecisive.
For an IxxP person, the dominant introverted function is a judging one. It helps to explain, describe or otherwise make others aware of the evaluation process. This will take time and effort. However, making an introverted judging function more visible to others can avoid a lot of misunderstanding.
For an IxxJ person, the dominant introverted function is a perceiving one. Instead of quietly observing and collecting information or acquiring patterns, it helps to actively probe, ask, inquire. One potential issue with only passively acquiring information is that in the absence of complete data, the auxiliary extraverted function will attempt to make assumptions in order to evaluate, and that can lead to misunderstanding.
Because this kind of conflict results in exhaustion, the key is to keep formal sessions shorter with more breaks. During break time, Exxx people can talk among themselves, and Ixxx people can sit quietly. Both types get to recharge before getting back to the table to continue.
A xNxx person can try to fill in the gaps a little more and connect concepts and ideas. A xSxx person can let go of some details that may not be important within the current context, or only supply details when they are requested.
This one actually needs some more explanation before a discussion of the resolution.
A person with a xxTx personality also has feelings, and a person with a xxFx personality also thinks logically. The letter really has more to do with which decision making criteria is more comfortable.
For example, an INTJ person feels more comfortable making decisions based on numbers, facts and logic. This does not mean an INTJ person does not have feelings. Rather, an INTJ person is less comfortable with making decisions based on feelings because feelings are less accessible by the conscious mind.
People tend to be more comfortable with functions with a higher conscious awareness.
That being said, the resolution between xxFx and xxTx conflicts has to do with increasing the awareness of the more subconscious functions. This takes time, patience and acceptance. Most importantly, it takes “comfort”.
For example, in an F/T disagreement, if an ISTP person is placed in a highly emotional atmosphere, the subconscious feeling function leads to anxiety because it “does not know how to handle” the situation.
Likewise, in a similar disagreement, an ESFJ person may subconsciously trigger insecurity because a logical point may be perceived as scrutiny without a conscious logical process.
In a F/T disagreement, it is important for xxFx to attempt to use logic to process the disagreement, and xxTx to attempt to use value to process the disagreement.
This section will be broken up by function stack positions.
Fe-dom personalities prioritize harmony. Fe is an extraverted judging function, as such, Fe-doms has a high tendency to want to make decisions or have things decided, rather than leaving things undecided. Fe focuses more on the feelings other than self, as a result, Fe-dom personalities are usually more aware of the feelings of others than those of selves.
In an organization, Fe-doms form the fabric on which other personalities can attach. Fe-doms have a tendency to keep people connected. As such, Fe-doms are important to an organization because they keep the people together.
For the most part.
Fe-doms may have difficulties connecting to thinking types, especially the introverted thinking types. As a result, it is best to provide opportunities for people in an organization to connect, but not to force members to participate.
Fe-doms also tend to outwardly project emotions. Because harmony is a high priority, Fe-doms often project friendliness and warmth.
Fe-Ni utilizes insight (Ni) to help enhance harmony. Fe-Ni people can read people and between the lines, and use that ability to achieve harmony. In other words, Fe-Ni has the ability to find out what people need or want, and help people achieve what they want or need.
Fe-Ni can quickly notice patterns and tendencies of people. This ability is very valuable in negotiations.
Fe-Si utilizes experience (Si) to help enhance harmony. As such, Fe-Si people value traditions, conventions and the norm. These mechanism help to unite most people. However, keep in mind that Ne-dom and Ne-aux people can be individual and pay little attention to traditions.
Fe-Si also pays attention to details because of the Si-aux. One can say Fe-Si use details to help achieve harmony. This makes Fe-Si perfect for organizing parties and other functions because they can plan everything down to the last details, and execute plans to a T.
Fi-dom personalities prioritize morality (as opposed to ethics). One can say Fi-doms have a very strong internal moral compass, and they first check this compass before doing thing.
Unlike Fe-doms, Fi-doms may not form the fabric of an organization because Fi-doms do not necessarily like to connect with others. However, Fi-doms can determine the color of the fabric because they help steer the direction of an organization based on morality.
Also unlike Fe-doms, Fi-doms tend to express less.
Fi-Ne people uses novelty to discover, enhance and express their morality framework. Fi-Ne people do not pay much attention to traditions or conventions, and they tend to be creative.
In an organization, Fi-Ne people contribute to the more abstract and higher level “cause” and purpose. Because Fi-Ne people tend to be quiet, they usually do not voluntarily express their rather intense feeling on matters. As a result, it can be a challenge for an organization to utilize Fi-Ne people as a valuable resource.
Fi-Se people utilizes what they sense in the present to help build and refine the morality framework. Because the full stack of Fi-Se is Fi-Se-Ni-Te, Fi-Se people are even less tradition than Fi-Ne.
Fi-Se people are more action-oriented than Fi-Ne people. As such, Fi-Se people are well suited to create material for PR in an organization.
Ne-dom people have ideas, lots of ideas. They live to explore possibilities, ideas an concepts. Where most people see a timeline, Ne-dom people see a time-tree with branches everywhere. Where most people have a train of thought, Ne-dom people have a “firework” of thought.
Ne-doms are the “idea” people in an organization. They are not traditional, not conventional, and have a very big and irregular shape thinking box. However, in order to benefit from Ne-doms in an organization, they must be given the space to explore. Also, as an organization, it must be open-minded enough to finish listening to Ne-doms before making decisions.
Ne-Fi people have lots of ideas, but they use morality as a lens to focus their ideas to ones that relate to their sense of right/wrong, just/unfair.
In an organization, Ne-Fi people are well suited to compose vision and mission statements. Ne-Fi people can also work in PR in terms of generating ideas.
Ne-Ti people use truth as a lens to focus their ideas to ones that may come closer to the truth.
In an organization, Ne-Ti people are excellent debaters who can help in two ways. They can help emulate entities that an organization needs to negotiate with to prepare arguments, or they can be a part of a negotiation team to come up with novel arguments on the fly. Ne-Ti people are not shy to express their reasoning.
Ni-dom people are very insightful, they naturally look deeper and beyond than most. This is done without conscious thinking, meaning that Ni-dom people naturally pick up patterns and make connections.
In an organization, Ni-dom people can provide insight based on history and into the future.
Ni-Fe people are insightful particularly into harmony within an organization. The insight is used to figure out what people want and need. Compared to Fe-Ni people, Ni-Fe people are even more insightful, but Ni-Fe people also tend to be very quiet outside their circle of close friends. This makes it a challenge to tap into Ni-Fe as a organizational resource.
Because Ni-Fe people often keep to themselves, they do not offer as much in meetings. However, when consulted individually, Ni-Fe people can make very good advisors in an organization, especially on matters concerning organizational harmony and growth of organization members.
Ni-Te people are insightful, and they channel their insights to the improvement of objectively measurable effectiveness. Ni-Te people notice inefficiencies quickly, and they also know how to quantify efficiency and find ways to improve efficiency.
In an organization, Ni-Te people are excellent advisors to help improve organizational effectiveness. Ni-Te people are also excellent strategists due to their insight ability in all matters that require strategies.
Se-dom people are action-oriented, they are always ready to do something. Se-dom people are also very extraverted (they are the extraverts of extraverts). In an organization, Se-dom people are the one who can lead by example, lead by doing.
Se-Fi people focus their actions on activities that they believe are right. As such, Se-Fi people energize an organization based on the value or the organization and what it represents.
Se-Ti people choose to act in ways that are logical. They are the no-nonsense action-oriented extroverted people in an organization set out to do what is logical.
Si-dom people are living history books. Si-dom people value traditions, conventions, and experience. They remember events in details. In an organization, Si-dom people excel in any tasks that require attention to details, procedure following and conformance to published standards.
Si-Fe people applies traditions, conventions and down-to-earth actions to improve harmony. In an organization, Si-Fe people are the proverbial “good workers”, with a splash of warmth and friendliness. If an organization is a fabric, Si-Fe people form the bulk of the material.
Si-Te people applies tried-and-proven methods to make things work. Like their Si-Fe counterparts, Si-Te people are also detail oriented and can follow established procedures and rules precisely. Si-Te people are also “good workers” because they are hard working, reliable and conscientious. Where Si-Fe is the part of the organizational fabric that is soft and warm, Si-Te is the part of the organizational fabric that is tough and wear resistant.
Te-dom people objectively look at the world and evaluate the effectiveness of everything. Te-dom people cannot stand anything that resembles inefficiency.
Te-Ni people use insight to help improve the effectiveness of everything. Te-Ni people are highly driven, and they are not shy to let others in an organization how to improve efficiency.
Because Te-Ni are insightful, they tend to focus on organization structure and long-term plans that can help improve the effectiveness of an organization. In an organization, Te-Ni people are well suited to roles like CEO.
Te-Si people use experience to improve the effectiveness. Te-Si people, like their Te-Ni counterparts, are also highly driven.
Te-Si people tend to focus more on day-to-day operations and organization member individual effectiveness. As such, Te-Si people are well suited as front-line managers to mid-level managers.
Ti-dom people are (logical) truth seekers. Where Fi-dom people ask whether something is right or wrong, Ti-dom people ask whether something is correct (according to truth) or incorrect. Ti-dom people are generally quiet as they spend more time and energy in their thoughts.
Ti-Ne people enlists the help of novelty to build an internal logical framework that represents the world. Ti-Ne people can process abstract concepts, and theorize frameworks that are not traditional, conventional or popular.
In an organization, Ti-Ne people tend to be quiet, but they also tend to do things their own ways. Ti-Ne people can be valuable resources in situations where logical problems need to be solved. Compared to their extraverted counterparts (Ne-Ti), Ti-Ne people have a stronger tendency to apply logic to find solutions.
Ti-Se people use action (and the results there of) to help build an internal logic model of the world. Compared to the Ti-Ne counterparts, Ti-Se people are more action oriented despite being quiet.
Ti-Se people are also more skill oriented. As such, Ti-Se people are the skilled technicians of an organization who can get technical things done.